peripheral nervous system

What-is-cryotherapy

What is cryotherapy 

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Cryotherapy literally means "cold therapy." It is a technique in which the whole body or parts of it are exposed for a short time to an extremely low temperature.

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Localized cryotherapy is applied in different ways – by placing ice packs, ice massage, cooling sprays, ice baths, etc. on certain areas of the body. Proponents of this type of therapy claim that it works in the same way as when ice is used to relieve swelling. &nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31223612/" target="_blank" data-ref="The Effectiveness of the Whole Body Cryotherapy Strategies: A Comparison of Different Duration and Temperature on the Antioxidative Status in the Experimental Rat Model - PubMed" rel="noopener">[ref. 1]</a>&nbsp;

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Whole-body cryotherapy is the immersion of the body in a special chamber with extremely cold air or a bath filled with water and ice for a few minutes. The benefits of cryotherapy are felt even from one session. But the most effective is the regular conduct of therapy. &nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10832164/" target="_blank" data-ref="[Whole-body cryotherapy in rehabilitation of patients with rheumatoid diseases--pilot study] - PubMed" rel="noopener">[ref. 2]</a>&nbsp;

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Cryotherapy of the whole body is not a medical treatment and you do not need to have a doctor's prescription for its conduction. Capsules and baths for cryotherapy are available in large spa, wellness and fitness centers, as well as in specialized medical centers.

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In places that offer cryotherapy, there are special tanks or chambers that cool to extremely low temperatures - from -120 to -180 degrees Celsius. Most tanks are shoulder-high, with the head usually remaining outside the tank at room temperature. In full-body therapy, it is good to wear a protective coating on the hands, feet and ears to protect them from frostbite. The duration of therapy is from 2 to 4 minutes.

Benefits-of-Cryotherapy

Benefits of Cryotherapy

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Observations and studies to date show that cryotherapy can have a positive impact on:

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Reducing migraine symptoms 

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Cryotherapy can help treat migraines by cooling and anesthetizing the nerves in the neck and cooling blood flowing through the intracranial arteries. &nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00005-015-0363-9?error=cookies_not_supported&amp;code=c9119701-8160-487a-a43e-e562bdfb456b" target="_blank" data-ref="Impact of Whole Body Cryotherapy at &minus;110&nbsp;&deg;C on Subjects with Arterial Hypertension - Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis" rel="noopener">[ref. 3]</a>&nbsp;

Reduces-arthritic-pain

Reduces arthritic pain 

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Studies have shown that whole-body cryotherapy significantly reduces pain in people with arthritis. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18548207/" target="_blank" data-ref="[Serial whole-body cryotherapy in the criostream for inflammatory rheumatic diseases. A pilot study] - PubMed" rel="noopener">[ref.</a>&nbsp;4]&nbsp;

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Losing weight and boosting metabolism 

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Cryotherapy alone will not lead to weight loss, but it can aid the process. Cold causes the body to work harder to stay warm and maintain its normal temperature. A few minutes of cold can significantly speed up metabolism and improve the body's response to cold. <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/Suppl_1/A38" target="_blank" data-ref="P-12 The effects of the whole body cryotherapy on the body composition" rel="noopener">[ref.</a>&nbsp;5]&nbsp;

Relieve-inflammation

Relieve inflammation 

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Inflammation is one of the ways the immune system fights infection. Sometimes the immune system becomes overreactive. The result is chronic inflammation, which has been linked to health problems such as cancer, diabetes, depression, dementia and arthritis. Some studies have shown that cryotherapy can reduce inflammation. This type of therapy is often used by athletes to treat and relieve pain from pinched nerves, chronic pain, or even serious trauma.

Treatment-of-Atopic-Dermatitis-and-other-skin-diseases

Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis and other skin diseases 

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Cryotherapy can improve antioxidant levels and reduce inflammation in Atopic Dermatitis, which is characterized by dry and irritating skin.

For-depression-and-anxiety

For depression and anxiety 

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The extremely low temperatures used in cryotherapy can trigger physiological and hormonal responses, such as the release of adrenaline, noradrenaline and endorphins. This can have a positive effect on people who experience anxiety and depression. &nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734249/" target="_blank" data-ref="Page not available - PMCTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubSM-TwitterSM-FacebookSM-Youtube" rel="noopener">[ref. 6]</a>&nbsp;

Support-in-the-treatment-of-low-risk-tumors

Support in the treatment of low-risk tumors 

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Targeted or localized cryotherapy, which is used as a cancer treatment, is called "cryosurgery". It works by freezing cancer cells and destroying them.&nbsp;

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External tumors are usually treated by applying liquid nitrogen directly through a cotton swab or spray tool. After treatment, the frozen tissue turns into a scab and eventually heals. Patients with early-stage skin cancer, precancerous skin growths, and certain types of eye cancer may undergo this form of cryotherapy after referral by medical professionals.

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Internal tumors are treated with a cryoprobe - a special tool that delivers liquid nitrogen to the tumor site through a small incision. During treatment, doctors monitor which cells are frozen by ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ensuring that healthy tissue in the treated area remains undamaged. Once cryotherapy is complete, the frozen cells are thawed and expelled naturally from the body. This type of destruction of cancer cells can be applied to:&nbsp;

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<ul><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Bone cancer</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Prostate cancer</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Liver cancer that has not spread</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Localised Kaposi sarcoma associated with AIDS</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Precancerous conditions of the cervix or breast</li></ul>

Prevention-of-dementia-and-Alzheimer's

Prevention of dementia and Alzheimer's

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Cryotherapy has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and may help fight the inflammatory and oxidative stress responses that occur in Alzheimer's disease. Research in this area is still small. &nbsp;<a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/35000" target="_blank" data-ref="Cryotherapy: Physiological Considerations and Applications to Physical Therapy" rel="noopener">[ref. 7]</a>&nbsp;

Improve-blood-circulation

Improve blood circulation 

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Improving blood circulation as an effect of cryotherapy is closely related to cell growth and optimal organ function. Increased circulation eliminates toxins from the body and, ultimately, detoxifies the blood and organs.&nbsp;

Improving-the-functioning-of-the-immune-system

Improving the functioning of the immune system

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Research has shown that cryotherapy can increase the amount of white blood cells. This allows our bodies to identify and attack foreign objects known to cause disease.

Risks-of-whole-body-cryotherapy

Risks of whole-body cryotherapy 

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Exposure to extreme cold and low temperatures can cause serious injuries from frostbite or rashes. Even with cryotherapy in a controlled environment, extreme cold can worsen health problems and conditions such as:

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<ul><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">High blood pressure;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Cardiovascular diseases;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Respiratory diseases;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Impaired blood circulation;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Allergic symptoms;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Neuropathy of the feet;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Diabetes and other conditions that affect the peripheral nervous system;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Intolerance to cold;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Cryoglobulinemia and cryofibrinogenemia;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Raynaud's disease;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Thromboembolic changes and inflammation in the venous system;</li><li style="font-weight: 400;" aria-level="1">Hypothyroidism.</li></ul>The most common side effects of cryotherapy are numbness, redness and skin irritation. These side effects are almost always temporary.

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If you apply cryotherapy at home in the form of an ice bath at home or a local application of ice to a certain area of the body, you should not exceed the time of 15-20 minutes. With topical application, the ice should be wrapped in a towel to prevent skin damage.&nbsp;

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And remember - cryotherapy should not be used longer than recommended.&nbsp;

Cryotherapy is a procedure for the topical or general use of low temperatures in medical therapy. It works by reducing blood flow to a specific area, which can significantly reduce inflammation and swelling that causes pain. Therapy apparently has more areas of application, including anxiety and depression, some forms of cancer, arthritic pain, and skin disease.

Possible Cryotherapy Benefits for Improved Health

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Бетина Цветкова

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<h4>Author: Ivelina Yankova, Bachelor of Biomedical Sciences</h4>

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What-is-marijuana?

What is marijuana?

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Marijuana is derived from the Cannabis sativa plant, which was originally found in India and Central Asia. It has characteristic shaped leaves, gives flowering, which also has a characteristic appearance and can grow over three meters. Marijuana is the dried leaves, flowers, twigs and seeds of the plant. Cannabis contains over 120 active substances called cannabinoids or phytocannabinoids, the most famous of which are cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).&nbsp;

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How-is-marijuana-used?

How is marijuana used?

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<h4>People most often smoke marijuana in paper in the form of a cigarette (joint), as well as in a pipe or water pipe (bong). Rolling it into a paper made of tobacco (blunt) is also a known method for use of the plant.</h4>

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<h4>To avoid smoke inhalation, there are devices called vaporizers, which can also use liquid marijuana extract. They withdraw the active substances from the plant by decarboxylation (removing a carboxylic group from the compound, in which carbon dioxide is released – most often by heating) and storing their fumes in a specific part of the device.&nbsp; When smoking from the evaporator, these fumes are inhaled, which gives the same effect as when inhaling the smoke.</h4>

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<h4>Also, the active substances can be extracted and mixed with various food products to prepare meals.</h4>

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<h4>Lately, smoking or eating THC-rich marijuana extracts has become more common; these may be in a different form - oil, wax or solid.</h4>

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Marijuana-before-and-today

Marijuana before and today

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Marijuana use is believed to have started as early as 2900 BC. In the beginning, it was used for healing and there is evidence that the ancient Egyptians used it to treat glaucoma and inflammation of the body. In the original Jewish version of "Mass Exodus" (the second part of the Bible, which in Bulgaria we call the "New Testament") there are writings about sacred oil for anointing, in which content there was also marijuana. In 2900 BC, Chinese Emperor declared cannabis a popular drug and many other medicinal properties of this plant have since been discovered (ref.8).

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The following records found were from 1000 BC, when Indians created a drink containing marijuana, which to this day is used as an anti-phlegmatic and anesthetic in India. Indians also believed that cannabis helps against dysentery and leprosy, a disease known in antiquity that was once considered incurable. Marijuana is known for its spiritual significance for the Indians. The notes of the ancient collection "The Vedas" claimed that cannabis was born from a drop of heavenly nectar that fell to the ground. This religiosity had spread cannabis use even further (ref.9).

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Other ancient civilizations, such as the Greek, Roman, Arabic and English, have also used cannabis to treat various types of infections and diseases (arthritis, gout, syphilis, migraine, insomnia, etc.), and some had used it only for recreational purposes (ref.9). After the year 800, along with the spread of Islam, recreational cannabis use was on the rise because there was no specific ban on marijuana in the Koran.

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As people's skills progress and due to the rapid growth and easy cultivation of marijuana, it begins to be used as a resource for making clothes, paper, ropes and sails for ships. Later, cannabis began to be used and grown by American colonies and by Spain during military missions.

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By the mid-19th century, cannabis was already recommended by doctors and sold in pharmacies without the need for prescription (ref.10), and was even added to the American Pharmacopoeia, temporarily (ref.8). It wasn't until the early 20th century that marijuana began to be used for recreational use in America when it was imported by Mexican immigrants into the country. This happened during the Mexican Revolution and the Great Depression in America, when there was mass unemployment. People are believed to have started hating Mexican immigrants and the marijuana they imported. The great misunderstandings led to the introduction of the "Marijuana Taxes Act" in 1937 – to be used only for specific industrial and medical purposes, only when paying excise duty (ref. 11).

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Meanwhile, societies that opposed the ongoing change were growing. This continued until the late 1950s, when cannabis stopped being used entirely, and in 1970 President Richard Nixon repealed the Marijuana Tax Act and listed marijuana in the Controlled Substances Act as a first-degree drug, along with LSD, heroin and ecstasy. This law states marijuana as a drug with great potential for abuse and which has no medicinal properties that can be applied in medicine. This prohibition made it difficult to conduct any scientific research with the plant (ref.12).

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Years later, despite the law's attempts to impose strict measures against marijuana, some states began to decriminalize its use for medical reasons, and by 2019, eleven states in America and other countries around the world legalize marijuana for both medical and recreational purposes.

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The-first-research-on-the-effects-of-marijuana

The first research on the effects of marijuana

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Nowadays, there are many studies done on the benefits and side effects of marijuana use. Moreover, we also know much more about the substances that are responsible for the properties of marijuana, medicinal or not.

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The first published study on the healing properties of marijuana is from the year 1840 (ref.13). Dr. O'Shaughnessy first examined the effects of marijuana extract intake in animals, where he did not see any negative effects. Then he began clinical trials in people with different types of diseases – rheumatism, hydrophobia, cholera, dysentery, tetanus. In most patients, there were no noticeable improvements, but in the patients with tetanus, the doctor noticed significant improvements. Tetanus is a disease of the nervous system caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani, which produces a toxin that affects the nervous system, causing painful muscle contractions all over the body. Dr. O'Shaughnessy believed that marijuana helped patients to cope with tetanus because it helps relax the muscles, which has led to a decrease in symptoms in these patients (ref.13). Subsequent studies have mentioned similar benefits of marijuana extract in diseases such as tuberculosis, rheumatism, tetanus, with the main and most notable effect being the relief of body aches that patients experience during diseases.

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The cannabis plant produces 8 cannabinoid acids, from which the phytocannabinoids CBG, THC, CBD, CBC, CBGV, THCV, CBDV and CBCV are synthesized. These are the phytocannabinoids in marijuana that resound the plant with its interesting influences on our organism. Due to the rich information about the effects of these substances, here we will concentrate only on THC and CBD.

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The two substances with the highest concentration in cannabis are Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). For the first time they were isolated from the plant in the 1940s, and their chemical structures were discovered in 1964 by Rafael Mekulam, who, a few years later, created the first synthetic cannabinoids (ref. 14), which to this day are used for scientific studies.&nbsp;

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Phytocannabinoids express their properties mainly by binding to endogenous cannabinoid receptors. Such a receptor was first detected in 1988 (ref. 15), when phytocannabinoids were shown to bind to a specific substance in the membrane of cells and thus induce their specific actions in the body. To date, only two endocannabinoid receptors have been detected – CB1 and CB2.

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Endocannabinoid-system

Endocannabinoid system

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Endocannabinoid receptors are part of a very important system for us called the endocannabinoid system (ECS).&nbsp; Its existence was discovered in the 1990s thanks to the inquisitiveness of scientists Allyn Howlett and Bill Devon and the new methods at the time in molecular science (ref.20). Not much is known about this system yet, but scientific studies have proven that it is important for the course of many processes that are essential for the normal function of the body. Some scientists believe that the role of ECS is to maintain homeostasis in the body.

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In addition to the endocannabinoid receptors, a part of the ECS are endocannabinoids (two previously detected - anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)) and enzymes (amidy hydrolase of fatty acids and monoacylglycelic acid linase) whose role is to break down AEA and 2-AG when they are no longer needed.

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The majority of CB1 receptors are localized on the surface of nerve cells in the brain and more precisely in the anatomical parts, which are associated with cognitive impairment, memory, feelings of satisfaction, anxiety and pain, motor coordination and endocrine function. Also, a small part of CB1 receptors are located in areas of the peripheral nervous system - the spleen, white blood cells, endocrine glands, as well as in some parts of the reproductive, gastrointestinal and urinary system.

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Unlike CB1, CB2 receptors are located mainly on the surface of cells in the peripheral nervous system – white blood cells, spleen and tonsils, and recently their presence was noticed in the central nervous system, but in a smaller concentration (ref.6).

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How-phytocannabinoids-affect-their-actions

How phytocannabinoids affect their actions

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Phytocannabinoids are not part of the endocannabinoid system, but it has been found that their properties overlap to some extent with the properties of AEA and 2-AG.

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CBD is one of the most studied phytocannabinoids due to its healing potential. Its effect on the body differs from that of THC, but it is believed that they may have a cumulative effect reinforcing the analgesic action of medical cannabis extract (ref. 17). CBD has a weak affinity (attraction) to CB1 and CB2 receptors, but in the presence of THC it may act as a CB1 antagonist (blocks the action of THC on CB1) and and a negative allosteric modulator of THC and AEA on the CB1 receptor (ref. 18, 19). This means that when CBD binds to CB1, THC's and AEA's affinity for that receptor is reduced, therefore reducing their effect in the body. It is believed that this property of CBD is key to its anti-inflammatory action, because when CB1 receptors are activated, the production of free radicals (these are oxygen-containing, highly reactive molecules that can cause chain chemical reactions in the body) and the pro-inflammatory substance TNF-alfa increase. Therefore, CBD's mechanism as a negative allosteric modulator reduces the activation of CB1 receptor (ref.31).

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It is not yet known what the target of CBD is in the endocannabinoid system; some scientists believe that the receptor with which CBD binds has not yet been discovered. However, other CBD functions that are diverse in nature and most likely also play a role in the manifestation of CBD's healing properties have been found outside the ECS. One of its mechanisms of action is the binding to specific cation channels (TRP), leading to a decrease in the release of glutamate, which has the potential to lead to neural death if its levels are higher than normal (ref. 43). The antioxidant properties of CBD are exhibited in its ability to capture free radicals, interrupt the chain chemical reactions caused by them, and to model the action and levels of both antioxidants and oxidants (ref. 32).

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THC is an analogue of the endocannabinoid AEA (ref.16) and gives the euphoric effect when using marijuana. THC has been shown to be a mixed agonist/antagonist of CB1 and CB2 receptors - it exhibits properties of both an antagonist and an agonist (the same as an antagonist, but instead of blocking, it mimics the properties of the substance it replaces) depending on the type of cell it binds to, the amount of receptors and whether there are endocannabionoids - complete agonists, that would replace THC (ref.7). Nevertheless, THC exhibits a strong affinity for the CB1 receptor, which is believed to be the cause of its psychoactive properties, as well as its potential proinflammatory properties.

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In addition, THC can bind nonspecifically to other receptors in the body outside the ECS, as a result of which many of its known physiological properties are manifested. For example, it has been documented that THC affects the metabolism of certain proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) (ref.3), as well as of hormonal secretion and various neurotransmitters (ref. 4,5). Due to the wide variety of effects that THC has, no specific mechanism of action can be determined. THC exhibits analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antipruritic, bronchodilator, antispasmodic and muscle-relaxing properties. Also, it can also induce the production of free radicals (ref. 31, 35).

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Diseases-and-symptoms-in-which-positive-effects-have-been-observed

Diseases and symptoms in which positive effects have been observed

Multiple-sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis

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MS – multiple sclerosis – is one of the most commonly discussed diseases when talking about medicinal properties of cannabis. This is an autoimmune disease in which a person's own immune system begins to attack nerve cells. This causes typical symptoms - numbness of the palms and feet, loss of muscle tone and problems with balance, orientation and walking, fatigue and chronic pain in the body. In some studies, the effect of cannabis on some of the symptoms of MS has been proven, and it seems to improve them significantly. As early as 1987, in a clinical trial of MS patients an improvement in muscle tone (spasticity) was observed, which is often painful, after taking THC (ref. 28). In another study, two years later, similar results in spasticity and tremors in the muscles of MS patients were documented (ref. 29). In studies of animal models of MS, the muscle-relaxing and anti-inflammatory action of THC and CBD is observed. Unfortunately, the intake of a combination of THC and CBD by MS patients does not show as good a change as in animals, but compared to pre-existing MS drugs, the effect is similar (ref.30). In some countries, smoking medical marijuana, as well as use of synthetic cannabis drugs, is approved for MS patients as a cure for spasticity and pain that they experience (ref. 33).

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Pain

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We have all experienced the feeling of pain at some point in our lives - when falling from the bike or when touching the hot pan unintentionally. Unfortunately, there are people who experience it on a daily basis for one reason or another. This painful feeling is caused by nerve signals sent to the brain where they are registered, processed and finally perceived as a feeling of pain. Nerve cells that transmit this information to the brain have many cannabinoid receptors. Due to the effects that cannabinoids exhibit on these receptors, cannabis intake may block the registration of this information. For example, in a study on the effect of THC on patients with chronic and acute, non-chronic pain, a significant decrease in chronic pain was observed. Acute pain is not affected until a combination of THC and CBD is administered. This may be due to a combination of the effect as a negative allosteric modulator , which CBD exhibits to THC, along with the healing effects of CBD itself (ref.25, 26). In another study, it was seen that CB1 receptor levels are rising in patients with chronic pain, which may explain the analgesic action of THC in these patients (ref.27). In contrast to what we discussed until now, there are also studies that have shown the opposite effect - pain intensification, from taking marijuana, but only in acute non-chronic pain (ref.39).&nbsp;

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Cancer

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The most encouraging discovery about the effect of cannabinoids is on the effect they exhibit in cancer patients who are subjected to body aches all day. Cannabinoids have been shown to have a calming effect on this chronic pain in patients. In addition, in all patients in this study, and in many others, there was also a decrease in nausea and an improvement in appetite in these patients (ref.40). Due to mass monitoring of these effects, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves THC (Dronabinol (Marinol®)) to treat nausea and vomiting, and to improve appetite in patients in chemotherapy (ref.41).

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The same medicine is also approved in AIDS patients who experience similar symptoms.

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There are scientific studies that show inhinition of tumor growth in patients in advanced stages (ref. 42), but more research in this direction is needed to prove this effect.

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Epilepsy

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Epilepsy is a common condition that affects the brain and causes frequent seizures. About a third of people with epilepsy are resistant to existing drugs (ref. 34). Various studies have shown a positive effect, specifically from taking CBD, for the treatment of seizures (ref. 37). Also, interesting is the cumulative effect of CBD with other antiepileptic drugs, as it seems that CBD increases their concentration, which in turn can improve results in these patients. This property is most likely the result of the inhibiting effect that CBD has on the P450 system (a large system of proteins that underpins drug interactions) (ref. 38). On June 25, 2018, the FDA approved a synthetic CBD drug (EPIDIOLEX) for the treatment of adults and children over 2 years of age (ref. 36). Although the permit is only for two specific epileptic syndromes, this is a great advance in the history of marijuana, as well as in the treatment of this disease.

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Glaucoma

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One of the leading causes of blindness in the world is glaucoma. Glaucoma is a chronic disease in which the optic nerve that connects the eye to the brain is damaged. It is usually caused by a build-up of fluid in the front of the eye, which increases the pressure in the eye. There have been reports that smoking cannabis reduces eye pressure since 1970 (ref. 39). In subsequent years, this effect of cannabinoids has been demonstrated several times (ref. 44, 45). In addition, THC is considered a neuroprotective agent that can increase blood supply to the retina, aiding the survival of the eye nerve. Unfortunately, there are not enough studies on this issue to prove that phytocannabinoids are a good remedy for glaucoma.

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Marijuana's-benefits-on-other-conditions

Marijuana's benefits on other conditions

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Cannabis intake seems to improve connections between different parts of the brain, but it also reduces the volume of this part in the brain associated with decision-making (ref 46).

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There are many other benefits of cannabis use, such as constipation, skin problems, anxiety, etc.

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Side-Effects-of-Marijuana

Side Effects of Marijuana

The topic of marijuana is controversial - people have different opinions on whether its use is beneficial or harmful. In this article are summarized the most important things you need to know about marijuana in a scientific context. It is a fact that it has been used since ancient times for medical purpose, and rightly so - to date many positive effects of the active ingredients in cannabis have been found. At the same time, however, there are also negative effects, especially in chronic use. Despite the progress we see in science for marijuana use, new, well designed studies are necessary to further understand the mechanisms which phytocannabionoids use and hence the way they affect us.

peripheral nervous system

Marijuana – a peek into the history, the science of its active substances and their effects on health

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) - causes, symptoms and treatment